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RARE Old Original Photo Marguerite - in Devil costume Signed ? ca 1914 For offer - a rare old photo! Fresh from an estate. Never offered on the market until now. Vintage, Old, antique, Original - NOT a Reproduction - Guaranteed !! This photo came with several others that were theater / early movie related from the Binghamton, NY - Broome County area. This could possibly be the vaudeville actress, Marguerite Ryan, as it bears a resemblance to her. Signed in in kat lower left - not sure if this is the autograph of the person in the photo. Devil costume. Photographer imprint of Gould & Marsden, New York, NY. Measures 7 1/2 x 9 3/4 inches. In good condition overall. Pin holes, corner wear and light stains. Please see photos. If you collect American photography, 20th century history, Americana, one of a kind, unique, etc., this is a nice one for your paper or ephemera collection. Combine shipping on multiple bid wins! 2786 A devil is the personification of evil as it is conceived in various cultures and religious traditions.[1] It is seen as the objectification of a hostile and destructive force.[2] Jeffrey Burton Russell states that the different conceptions of the devil can be summed up as 1) a principle of evil independent from God 2) an aspect of God 3) a created being turning evil; a fallen angel 4) a symbol of human evil.[3]: 23 It is difficult to specify a particular definition of any complexity that will cover all of the traditions, beyond that it is a manifestation of evil. It is meaningful to consider the devil through the lens of each of the cultures and religions that have the devil as part of their mythos.[4] The history of this concept intertwines with theology, mythology, psychiatry, art and literature, maintaining a validity, and developing independently within each of the traditions.[5] It occurs historically in many contexts and cultures, and is given many different names—Satan, Lucifer, Beelzebub, Mephistopheles, Iblis—and attributes: It is portrayed as blue, black, or red; it is portrayed as having horns on its head, and without horns, and so on.[6][7] While depictions of the devil are usually taken seriously, there are times when it is treated less seriously; when, for example, devil figures are used in advertising and on candy wrappers.[4][8] Etymology The Modern English word devil derives from the Middle English devel, from the Old English dēofol, that in turn represents an early Germanic borrowing of the Latin diabolus. This in turn was borrowed from the Greek διάβολος diábolos, "slanderer",[9] from διαβάλλειν diabállein, "to slander" from διά diá, "across, through" and βάλλειν bállein, "to hurl", probably akin to the Sanskrit gurate, "he lifts up".[10] Definitions In his book The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Jeffrey Burton Russell discusses various meanings and difficulties that are encountered when using the term devil. He does not claim to define the word in a general sense, but he describes the limited use that he intends for the word in his book—limited in order to "minimize this difficulty" and "for the sake of clarity". In this book Russell uses the word devil as "the personification of evil found in a variety of cultures", as opposed to the word Satan, which he reserves specifically for the figure in the Abrahamic religions.[11] In the Introduction to his book Satan: A Biography, Henry Ansgar Kelly discusses various considerations and meanings that he has encountered in using terms such as devil and Satan, etc. While not offering a general definition, he describes that in his book "whenever diabolos is used as the proper name of Satan", he signals it by using "small caps".[12] The Oxford English Dictionary has a variety of definitions for the meaning of "devil", supported by a range of citations: "Devil" may refer to Satan, the supreme spirit of evil, or one of Satan's emissaries or demons that populate Hell, or to one of the spirits that possess a demonic person; "devil" may refer to one of the "malignant deities" feared and worshiped by "heathen people", a demon, a malignant being of superhuman powers; figuratively "devil" may be applied to a wicked person, or playfully to a rogue or rascal, or in empathy often accompanied by the word "poor" to a person—"poor devil".[13] Baháʼí Faith In the Baháʼí Faith, a malevolent, superhuman entity such as a devil or satan is not believed to exist.[14] These terms do, however, appear in the Baháʼí writings, where they are used as metaphors for the lower nature of man. Human beings are seen to have free will, and are thus able to turn towards God and develop spiritual qualities or turn away from God and become immersed in their self-centered desires. Individuals who follow the temptations of the self and do not develop spiritual virtues are often described in the Baháʼí writings with the word satanic.[14] The Baháʼí writings also state that the devil is a metaphor for the "insistent self" or "lower self" which is a self-serving inclination within each individual. Those who follow their lower nature are also described as followers of "the Evil One".[15][16] Christianity Main article: Devil in Christianity See also: Satan § Christianity, and War in Heaven In Christianity, evil is incarnate in the devil or Satan, a fallen angel who is the primary opponent of God.[17][18] Some Christians also considered the Roman and Greek deities as devils.[6][7] Christianity describes Satan as a fallen angel who terrorizes the world through evil,[17] is the antithesis of truth,[19] and shall be condemned, together with the fallen angels who follow him, to eternal fire at the Last Judgment.[17] In mainstream Christianity, the devil is usually referred to as Satan. This is because Christian beliefs in Satan are inspired directly by the dominant view of Second Temple Judaism (recorded in the Enochian books), as expressed/practiced by Jesus, and with some minor variations. Some modern Christians[who?] consider the devil to be an angel who, along with one-third of the angelic host (the demons), rebelled against God and has consequently been condemned to the Lake of Fire. He is described[attribution needed] as hating all humanity (or more accurately creation), opposing God, spreading lies and wreaking havoc on their souls. Horns of a goat and a ram, goat's fur and ears, nose and canines of a pig; a typical depiction of the devil in Christian art. The goat, ram and pig are consistently associated with the devil.[20] Detail of a 16th-century painting by Jacob de Backer in the National Museum in Warsaw. Satan is traditionally identified as the serpent who convinced Eve to eat the forbidden fruit; thus, Satan has often been depicted as a serpent. Although this identification is not present in the Adam and Eve narrative, this interpretation goes back at least as far as the time of the writing of the Book of Revelation, which specifically identifies Satan as being the serpent.[21] In the Bible, the devil is identified with "the dragon" and "the old serpent" seen in the Book of Revelation,[22] as has "the prince of this world" in the Gospel of John;[23] and "the spirit that now worketh in the children of disobedience" in the Epistle to the Ephesians;[24] and "the god of this world" in 2 Corinthians 4:4.[25] He is also identified as the dragon in the Book of Revelation[26] and the tempter of the Gospels.[27] The devil is sometimes called Lucifer, particularly when describing him as an angel before his fall, although the use of Lucifer (Latin lúcifer, "bringer of light"), the "son of the dawn", in Isaiah 14:12 is a reference to a Babylonian king.[28] Beelzebub is originally the name of a Philistine god (more specifically a certain type of Baal, from Ba‘al Zebûb, lit. "Lord of Flies") but is also used in the New Testament as a synonym for Satan. A corrupted version, "Belzeboub", appears in The Divine Comedy (Inferno XXXIV). In other, non-mainstream, Christian beliefs (e.g. the beliefs of the Christadelphians) the word "satan" in the Bible is not regarded as referring to a supernatural, personal being but to any 'adversary' and figuratively refers to human sin and temptation.[29] Apocrypha/Deuterocanon See also: Apocrypha, Biblical apocrypha, and Deuterocanonical books In the Book of Wisdom, the devil is represented as the one who brought death into the world.[30] The Second Book of Enoch contains references to a Watcher called Satanael,[31] describing him as the prince of the Grigori who was cast out of heaven[32] and an evil spirit who knew the difference between what was "righteous" and "sinful".[33] In the Book of Jubilees, Satan rules over a host of angels.[34] Mastema, who induced God to test Abraham through the sacrifice of Isaac, is identical with Satan in both name and nature.[35] The Book of Enoch contains references to Sathariel, thought also[by whom?] to be Sataniel and Satan'el. The similar spellings mirror that of his angelic brethren Michael, Raphael, Uriel and Gabriel, previous to his expulsion from Heaven.[citation needed] Gnostic religions See also: Demiurge § Gnosticism A lion-faced deity found on a Gnostic gem in Bernard de Montfaucon's L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures may be a depiction of the Demiurge. Gnostic and Gnostic-influenced religions postulate the idea that the material world is inherently evil. The One true God is remote, beyond the material universe, therefore this universe must be governed by an inferior imposter deity. This deity was identified with the deity of the Old Testament by some sects, such as the Sethians and the Marcions. Tertullian accuses Marcion of Sinope, that he [held that] the Old Testament was a scandal to the faithful … and … accounted for it by postulating [that Jehovah was] a secondary deity, a demiurgus, who was god, in a sense, but not the supreme God; he was just, rigidly just, he had his good qualities, but he was not the good god, who was Father of Our Lord Jesus Christ.[36] John Arendzen (1909) in the Catholic Encyclopedia (1913) mentions that Eusebius accused Apelles, the 2nd-century AD Gnostic, of considering the Inspirer of Old Testament prophecies to be not a god, but an evil angel.[37] These writings commonly refer to the Creator of the material world as "a demiurgus"[36] to distinguish him from the One true God. Some texts, such as the Apocryphon of John and On the Origin of the World, not only demonized the Creator God but also called him by the name of the devil in some Jewish writings, Samael.[38] Catharism In the 12th century in Europe the Cathars, who were rooted in Gnosticism, dealt with the problem of evil, and developed ideas of dualism and demonology. The Cathars were seen as a serious potential challenge to the Catholic church of the time. The Cathars split into two camps. The first is absolute dualism, which held that evil was completely separate from the good God, and that God and the devil each had power. The second camp is mitigated dualism, which considers Lucifer to be a son of God, and a brother to Christ. To explain this they used the parable of the prodigal son, with Christ as the good son, and Lucifer as the son that strayed into evilness. The Catholic Church responded to dualism in AD 1215 in the Fourth Lateran Council, saying that God created everything from nothing, and the devil was good when he was created, but he made himself bad by his own free will.[39][40] In the Gospel of the Secret Supper, Lucifer, just as in prior Gnostic systems, appears as a demiurge, who created the material world.[41] Hinduism Further information: Demon § Hinduism The earliest Hindu texts do not offer further explanations for evil, regarding evil as something natural.[42] However, later texts offer various explanations for evil. According to an explanation given by the Brahmins, both demons and gods spoke truth and untruth, but the demons relinquished the truth and the gods relinquished the untruth.[43] But both spirits are regarded as different aspects of one supreme god. Even some fierce deities like Kali are not thought of as devils but just as darker aspects of this god[44] and may even manifest benevolence.[43] Islam Main articles: Azazil and Iblis See also: Satan § Islam Iblis (top right on the picture) refuses to prostrate before the newly created Adam In Islam, the principle of evil is expressed by two terms referring to the same entity:[45][46][47] Shaitan (meaning astray, distant or devil) and Iblis. Iblis is the proper name of the devil representing the characteristics of evil.[48] Iblis is mentioned in the Quranic narrative about the creation of humanity. When God created Adam, he ordered the angels to prostrate themselves before him. All did, but Iblis refused and claimed to be superior to Adam out of pride. [Quran 7:12] Therefore, pride but also envy became a sign of "unbelief" in Islam.[48] Thereafter Iblis was condemned to Hell, but God granted him a request to lead humanity astray,[49] knowing the righteous will resist Iblis' attempts to misguide them. In Islam, both good and evil are ultimately created by God. But since God's will is good, the evil in the world must be part of God's plan.[50] Actually, God allowed the devil to seduce humanity. Evil and suffering are regarded as a test or a chance to proof confidence in God.[50] Some philosophers and mystics emphasized Iblis himself as a role model of confidence in God, because God ordered the angels to prostrate themselves, Iblis was forced to choose between God's command and God's will (not to praise someone else than God). He successfully passed the test, yet his disobedience caused his punishment and therefore suffering. However, he stays patient and is rewarded in the end.[51] Muslims hold that the pre-Islamic jinn, tutelary deities, became subject under Islam to the judgment of God, and that those who did not submit to the law of God are devils.[52] Although Iblis is often compared to the devil in Christian theology, Islam rejects the idea that Satan is an opponent of God and the implied struggle between God and the devil.[clarification needed] Iblis might either be regarded as the most monotheistic or the greatest sinner, but remains only a creature of God. Iblis did not become an unbeliever due to his disobedience, but because of attributing injustice to God; that is, by asserting that the command to prostrate himself before Adam was inappropriate.[53] There is no sign of angelic revolt in the Quran and no mention of Iblis trying to take God's throne[54][55] and Iblis's sin could be forgiven at anytime by God.[56] According to the Quran, Iblis's disobedience was due to his disdain for humanity, a narrative already occurring in early apocrypha.[57] As in Christianity, Iblis was once a pious creature of God but later cast out of Heaven due to his pride. However, to maintain God's absolute sovereignty,[58] Islam matches the line taken by Irenaeus instead of the later Christian consensus that the devil did not rebel against God but against humanity.[43][46] Further, although Iblis is generally regarded as a real bodily entity,[59] he plays a less significant role as the personification of evil than in Christianity. Iblis is merely a tempter, notable for inciting humans into sin by whispering into humans minds (waswās), akin to the Jewish idea of the devil as yetzer hara.[60][61] On the other hand, Shaitan refers unilaterally to forces of evil, including the devil Iblis, then he causes mischief.[62] Shaitan is also linked to humans psychological nature, appearing in dreams, causing anger or interrupting the mental preparation for prayer.[59] Furthermore, the term Shaitan also refers to beings, who follow the evil suggestions of Iblis. Furthermore, the principle of Shaitan is in many ways a symbol of spiritual impurity, representing humans' own deficits, in contrast to a "true Muslim", who is free from anger, lust and other devilish desires.[63] In Sufism and mysticism See also: Nafs In contrast to Occidental philosophy, the Sufi idea of seeing "Many as One", and considering the creation in its essence as the Absolute, leads to the idea of the dissolution of any dualism between the ego substance and the "external" substantial objects. The rebellion against God, mentioned in the Quran, takes place on the level of the psyche, that must be trained and disciplined for its union with the spirit that is pure. Since psyche drives the body, flesh is not the obstacle to humans but rather an unawareness that allows the impulsive forces to cause rebellion against God on the level of the psyche. Yet it is not a dualism between body, psyche and spirit, since the spirit embraces both psyche and corporeal aspects of humanity.[64] Since the world is held to be the mirror in which God's attributes are reflected, participation in worldly affairs is not necessarily seen as opposed to God.[60] The devil activates the selfish desires of the psyche, leading the human astray from the Divine.[65] Thus it is the I that is regarded as evil, and both Iblis and Pharao are present as symbols for uttering "I" in ones own behavior. Therefore it is recommended to use the term I as little as possible. It is only God who has the right to say "I", since it is only God who is self-subsistent. Uttering "I" is therefore a way to compare oneself to God, regarded as shirk.[66] In Salafism See also: Taghut Salafi strands of Islam commonly emphasize a dualistic worldview between the believers and the unbelievers,[67] with the devil as the enemy of God's path. Even though the devil will be finally defeated by God, he is a serious and dangerous opponent of humans.[68] While in classical hadiths, the demons (Shayateen) and the jinn are responsible for impurity and possibly endanger people, in Salafi thought, it is the devil himself, who lurks on the believers,[69] always striving to lead them astray from God. The devil is regarded as an omnipresent entity, permanently inciting humans into sin, but can be pushed away by remembering the name God.[70] The devil is regarded as an external entity, threatening the everyday life of the believer, even in social aspects of life.[71] Thus for example, it is the devil who is responsible for Western emancipation.[72] Judaism Further information: Satan § Judaism Yahweh, the god in pre-exilic Judaism, created both good and evil, as stated in Isaiah 45:7: "I form the light, and create darkness: I make peace, and create evil: I the Lord do all these things." The devil does not exist in Jewish scriptures. However, the influence of Zoroastrianism during the Achaemenid Empire introduced evil as a separate principle into the Jewish belief system, which gradually externalized the opposition until the Hebrew term satan developed into a specific type of supernatural entity, changing the monistic view of Judaism into a dualistic one.[73] Later, Rabbinic Judaism rejected[when?] the Enochian books (written during the Second Temple period under Persian influence), which depicted the devil as an independent force of evil besides God.[74] After the apocalyptic period, references to Satan in the Tanakh are thought[by whom?] to be allegorical.[75] Mandaeism Main article: World of Darkness (Mandaeism) See also: Mandaeism and Ruha In Mandaean mythology, Ruha fell apart from the World of Light and became the queen of the World of Darkness, also referred to as Sheol.[76][77][78] She is considered evil and a liar, sorcerer and seductress.[79]: 541 She gives birth to Ur, also referred to as Leviathan. He is portrayed as a large, ferocious dragon or snake and is considered the king of the World of Darkness.[77] Together they rule the underworld and create the seven planets and twelve zodiac constellations.[77] Also found in the underworld is Krun who is the greatest of the five Mandaean Lords of the underworld. He dwells in the lowest depths of creation and his epithet is the 'mountain of flesh'.[80]: 251 Prominent infernal beings found in the World of Darkness include lilith, nalai (vampire), niuli (hobgoblin), latabi (devil), gadalta (ghost), satani (Satan) and various other demons and evil spirits.[77][76] Manichaeism Main article: Prince of darkness (Manichaeism) In Manichaeism, God and the devil are two unrelated principles. God created good and inhabits the realm of light, while the devil (also called the prince of darkness[81][82]) created evil and inhabits the kingdom of darkness. The contemporary world came into existence, when the kingdom of darkness assaulted the kingdom of light and mingled with the spiritual world.[83] At the end, the devil and his followers will be sealed forever and the kingdom of light and the kingdom of darkness will continue to co-exist eternally, never to commingle again.[84] Hegemonius (4th century AD) accuses that the Persian prophet Mani, founder of the Manichaean sect in the 3rd century AD, identified Jehovah as "the devil god which created the world"[85] and said that "he who spoke with Moses, the Jews, and the priests … is the [Prince] of Darkness, … not the god of truth."[81][82] Tengrism Among the Tengristic myths of central Asia, Erlik refers to a devil-like figure as the ruler of Hell, who is also the first human. According to one narrative, Erlik and God swam together over the primordial waters. When God was about to create the Earth, he send Erlik to dive into the waters and collect some mud. Erlik hid some inside his mouth to later create his own world. But when God commanded the Earth to expand, Erlik got troubled by the mud in his mouth. God aided Erlik to spit it out. The mud carried by Erlik gave place to the unpleasant areas of the world. Because of his sin, he was assigned to evil. In another variant, the creator-god is identified with Ulgen. Again, Erlik appears to be the first human. He desired to create a human just as Ulgen did, thereupon Ulgen reacted by punishing Erlik, casting him into the Underworld where he becomes its ruler.[86][87] According to Tengrism, there is no death, meaning that, when life comes to an end, it is merely a transition into the invisible world. As the ruler of Hell, Erlik enslaves the souls, who are damned to Hell. Further, he lurks on the souls of those humans living on Earth by causing death, disease and illnesses. At the time of birth, Erlik sends a Kormos to seize the soul of the newborn, following him for the rest of his life in an attempt to seize his soul by hampering, misguiding and injuring him. When Erlik succeeds in destroying a human's body, the Kormos sent by Erlik will try take him down into the Underworld. However a good soul will be brought to Paradise by a Yayutshi sent by Ulgen.[88] Some shamans also made sacrifices to Erlik, for gaining a higher rank in the Underworld, if they should be damned to Hell. Yazidism According to Yazidism there is no entity that represents evil in opposition to God; such dualism is rejected by Yazidis,[89] and evil is regarded as nonexistent.[90] Yazidis adhere to strict monism and are prohibited from uttering the word "devil" and from speaking of anything related to Hell.[91] Zoroastrianism Main articles: Angra Mainyu and Dualistic cosmology Zoroastrianism probably introduced the first idea of the devil; a principle of evil independently existing apart from God.[92] In Zoroastrianism, good and evil derive from two ultimately opposed forces.[93] The force of good is called Ahura Mazda and the "destructive spirit" in Avestan-language called Angra Mainyu. The Middle Persian equivalent is Ahriman. They are in eternal struggle and neither is all-powerful, especially Angra Mainyu is limited to space and time: in the end of time, he will be finally defeated. While Ahura Mazda creates what is good, Angra Mainyu is responsible for every evil and suffering in the world, such as toads and scorpions.[92] Titles This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) These are titles that almost always refer to devil-figures. Al-Shaitan, another Arabic term referring to the devil Angra Mainyu, Ahriman: "malign spirit", "unholy spirit" Der Leibhaftige [Teufel] (German): "[the devil] in the flesh, corporeal"[94] Diabolus, Diabolos (Greek: Διάβολος) The Evil One The Father of Lies (John 8:44), in contrast to Jesus ("I am the truth"). Iblis, name of the devil in Islam The Lord of the Underworld / Lord of Hell / Lord of this world Lucifer / the Morning Star (Greek and Roman): the bringer of light, illuminator; the planet Venus, often portrayed as Satan's name in Christianity Kölski (Iceland)[95] Mephistopheles Old Scratch, the Stranger, Old Nick: a colloquialism for the devil, as indicated by the name of the character in the short story "The Devil and Tom Walker" Prince of darkness, the devil in Manichaeism Ruprecht (German form of Robert), a common name for the Devil in Germany (see Knecht Ruprecht (Knight Robert)) Satan / the Adversary, Accuser, Prosecutor; in Christianity, the devil (The ancient/old/crooked/coiling) Serpent Voland (fictional character in Goethe's Faust) See also Deal with the Devil Devil in popular culture Hades, Underworld Krampus,[96][97] in the Tyrolean area also Tuifl.[98][99] Non-physical entity Theistic Satanism Faust is the protagonist of a classic German legend based on the historical Johann Georg Faust (c. 1480–1540). The erudite Faust is highly successful yet dissatisfied with his life, which leads him to make a pact with the Devil at a crossroads, exchanging his soul for unlimited knowledge and worldly pleasures. The Faust legend has been the basis for many literary, artistic, cinematic, and musical works that have reinterpreted it through the ages. "Faust" and the adjective "Faustian" imply sacrificing spiritual values for power, knowledge, or material gain.[1][2] The Faust of early books—as well as the ballads, dramas, movies, and puppet-plays which grew out of them—is irrevocably damned because he prefers human to divine knowledge: "he laid the Holy Scriptures behind the door and under the bench, refused to be called doctor of theology, but preferred to be styled doctor of medicine".[1] Plays and comic puppet theatre loosely based on this legend were popular throughout Germany in the 16th century, often reducing Faust and Mephistopheles to figures of vulgar fun. The story was popularised in England by Christopher Marlowe, who gave it a classic treatment in his play The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus (whose date of publication is debated, but likely around 1587).[3] In Goethe's reworking of the story two hundred years later, Faust becomes a dissatisfied intellectual who yearns for "more than earthly meat and drink" in his life. Summary of the story Faust is bored and depressed with his life as a scholar. After an attempt to take his own life, he calls on the Devil for further knowledge and magic powers with which to indulge all the pleasure and knowledge of the world. In response, the Devil's representative, Mephistopheles, appears. He makes a bargain with Faust: Mephistopheles will serve Faust with his magic powers for a set number of years, but at the end of the term, the Devil will claim Faust's soul, and Faust will be eternally enslaved. During the term of the bargain, Faust makes use of Mephistopheles in various ways. In Goethe's drama, and many subsequent versions of the story, Mephistopheles helps Faust seduce a beautiful and innocent girl, usually named Gretchen, whose life is ultimately destroyed when she gives birth to Faust's bastard son. Realizing this unholy act she drowns the child and is held for murder. However, Gretchen's innocence saves her in the end, and she enters Heaven after execution. In Goethe's rendition, Faust is saved by God via his constant striving—in combination with Gretchen's pleadings with God in the form of the eternal feminine. However, in the early tales, Faust is irrevocably corrupted and believes his sins cannot be forgiven; when the term ends, the Devil carries him off to Hell. Sources Pan Twardowski and the devil by Michał Elwiro Andriolli. The Polish folklore legend bears many similarities to the story of Faust. The tale of Faust bears many similarities to the Theophilus legend recorded in the 13th century, writer Gautier de Coincy's Les Miracles de la Sainte Vierge. Here, a saintly figure makes a bargain with the keeper of the infernal world but is rescued from paying his debt to society through the mercy of the Blessed Virgin.[4] A depiction of the scene in which he subordinates himself to the Devil appears on the north tympanum of the Cathedrale de Notre Dame de Paris.[5] The origin of Faust's name and persona remains unclear.[dubious – discuss] In Historia Brittonum, Faustus is the offspring of an incestuous marriage between king Vortigern and Vortigern's own daughter.[6] The character is ostensibly based on Johann Georg Faust (c. 1480–1540), a magician and alchemist probably from Knittlingen, Württemberg, who obtained a degree in divinity from Heidelberg University in 1509, but the legendary Faust has also been connected with Johann Fust (c. 1400–1466), Johann Gutenberg's business partner,[7] which suggests that Fust is one of the multiple origins to the Faust story.[8] Scholars such as Frank Baron[9] and Leo Ruickbie[10] contest many of these[which?] previous assumptions.[clarification needed] The character in Polish folklore named Pan Twardowski presents similarities with Faust. The Polish story seems to have originated at roughly the same time as its German counterpart, yet it is unclear whether the two tales have a common origin or influenced each other. The historical Johann Georg Faust had studied in Kraków for a time and may have served as the inspiration for the character in the Polish legend. The first known printed source of the legend of Faust is a small chapbook bearing the title Historia von D. Johann Fausten, published in 1587. The book was re-edited and borrowed from throughout the 16th century. Other similar books of that period include: Das Wagnerbuch (1593) Das Widmann'sche Faustbuch (1599) Dr. Fausts großer und gewaltiger Höllenzwang (Frankfurt 1609) Dr. Johannes Faust, Magia naturalis et innaturalis (Passau 1612) Das Pfitzer'sche Faustbuch (1674) Dr. Fausts großer und gewaltiger Meergeist (Amsterdam 1692) Das Wagnerbuch (1714) Faustbuch des Christlich Meynenden (1725) The 1725 Faust chapbook was widely circulated and also read by the young Goethe. Related tales about a pact between man and the Devil include the plays Mariken van Nieumeghen (Dutch, early 16th century, author unknown), Cenodoxus (German, early 17th century, by Jacob Bidermann) and The Countess Cathleen (Irish legend of unknown origin believed by some to be taken from the French play Les marchands d'âmes). Locations linked to the story Staufen, a town in the extreme southwest of Germany, claims to be where Faust died (c. 1540); depictions appear on buildings, etc. The only historical source for this tradition is a passage in the Chronik der Grafen von Zimmern, which was written around 1565, 25 years after Faust's presumed death. These chronicles are generally considered reliable, and in the 16th century there were still family ties between the lords of Staufen and the counts of Zimmern in nearby Donaueschingen.[11] In Christopher Marlowe's original telling of the tale, Wittenburg where Faust studied was also written as Wertenberge. This has led to a measure of speculation as to where precisely his story is set. Some scholars have suggested the Duchy of Württemberg; others have suggested an allusion to Marlowe's own Cambridge (Gill, 2008, p. 5) Literary adaptations Marlowe Faustus in the Huntington Library, San Marino, California Marlowe's Doctor Faustus The early Faust chapbook, while in circulation in northern Germany, found its way to England, where in 1592 an English translation was published, The Historie of the Damnable Life, and Deserved Death of Doctor Iohn Faustus credited to a certain "P. F., Gent[leman]". Christopher Marlowe used this work as the basis for his more ambitious play, The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus (published c. 1604). Marlowe also borrowed from John Foxe's Book of Martyrs, on the exchanges between Pope Adrian VI and a rival pope. Illustration by Harry Clarke for Goethe's Faust Goethe's Faust Main article: Goethe's Faust Another important version of the legend is the play Faust, written by the German author Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. The first part, which is the one more closely connected to the earlier legend, was published in 1808, the second posthumously in 1832. Goethe's Faust complicates the simple Christian moral of the original legend. A hybrid between a play and an extended poem, Goethe's two-part "closet drama" is epic in scope. It gathers together references from Christian, medieval, Roman, eastern, and Hellenic poetry, philosophy, and literature. The composition and refinement of Goethe's own version of the legend occupied him, off and on, for over sixty years. The final version, published after his death, is recognized as a great work of German literature. The story concerns the fate of Faust in his quest for the true essence of life ("was die Welt im Innersten zusammenhält"). Frustrated with learning and the limits to his knowledge, power, and enjoyment of life, he attracts the attention of the Devil (represented by Mephistopheles), who makes a bet with Faust that he will be able to satisfy him; a notion that Faust is incredibly reluctant towards, as he believes this happy zenith will never come. This is a significant difference between Goethe's "Faust" and Marlowe's; Faust is not the one who suggests the wager. In the first part, Mephistopheles leads Faust through experiences that culminate in a lustful relationship with Gretchen, an innocent young woman. Gretchen and her family are destroyed by Mephistopheles' deceptions and Faust's desires. Part one of the story ends in tragedy for Faust, as Gretchen is saved but Faust is left to grieve in shame. The second part begins with the spirits of the earth forgiving Faust (and the rest of mankind) and progresses into allegorical poetry. Faust and his Devil pass through and manipulate the world of politics and the world of the classical gods, and meet with Helen of Troy (the personification of beauty). Finally, having succeeded in taming the very forces of war and nature, Faust experiences a singular moment of happiness. Mephistopheles tries to seize Faust's soul when he dies after this moment of happiness, but is frustrated and enraged when angels intervene due to God's grace. Though this grace is truly 'gratuitous' and does not condone Faust's frequent errors perpetrated with Mephistopheles, the angels state that this grace can only occur because of Faust's unending striving and due to the intercession of the forgiving Gretchen. The final scene has Faust's soul carried to heaven in the presence of God by the intercession of the "Virgin, Mother, Queen, ... Goddess kind forever... Eternal Womanhood.[12] The woman is thus victorious over Mephistopheles, who had insisted at Faust's death that he would be consigned to "The Eternal Empty". Goethe's Faust is a genuinely classical production, but the idea is a historical idea, and hence every notable historical era will have its own Faust. Søren Kierkegaard, Either/Or, Immediate Stages of the Erotic Mann's Doctor Faustus Thomas Mann's 1947 Doktor Faustus: Das Leben des deutschen Tonsetzers Adrian Leverkühn, erzählt von einem Freunde adapts the Faust legend to a 20th-century context, documenting the life of fictional composer Adrian Leverkühn as analog and embodiment of the early 20th-century history of Germany and of Europe. The talented Leverkühn, after contracting venereal disease from a brothel visit, forms a pact with a Mephistophelean character to grant him 24 years of brilliance and success as a composer. He produces works of increasing beauty to universal acclaim, even while physical illness begins to corrupt his body. In 1930, when presenting his final masterwork (The Lamentation of Dr Faust), he confesses the pact he had made: madness and syphilis now overcome him, and he suffers a slow and total collapse until his death in 1940. Leverkühn's spiritual, mental, and physical collapse and degradation are mapped on to the period in which Nazism rose in Germany, and Leverkühn's fate is shown as that of the soul of Germany. Benét's The Devil and Daniel Webster Faust and Lilith by Richard Westall (1831) Stephen Vincent Benét's short story "The Devil and Daniel Webster" published in 1937 is a retelling of the tale of Faust based on the short story The Devil and Tom Walker, written by Washington Irving. Benet's version of the story centers on a New Hampshire farmer by the name of Jabez Stone who, plagued with unending bad luck, is approached by the devil under the name of Mr. Scratch who offers him seven years of prosperity in exchange for his soul. Jabez Stone is eventually defended by Daniel Webster, a fictional version of the famous lawyer and orator, in front of a judge and jury of the damned, and his case is won. It was adapted in 1941 as a movie, The Devil and Daniel Webster, with James Craig as Jabez and Edward Arnold as Webster. It was remade in 2007 as Shortcut to Happiness with Alec Baldwin as Jabez and Anthony Hopkins as Webster. Selected additional dramatic works Faust (1836) by Nikolaus Lenau[13] Faust (1839) Ludwig Hermann Wolfram Doctor Faust. Dance Poem (1851) by Heinrich Heine Faust: The Third Part of the Tragedy (1862) by Friedrich Theodor Vischer The Death of Doctor Faustus (1925) by Michel de Ghelderode Mephisto (1933) Klaus Mann Faust, a Subjective Tragedy (1934) by Fernando Pessoa Doctor Faustus Lights the Lights (1938) by Gertrude Stein My Faust (1940) by Paul Valéry The Master and Margarita (1967) by Mikhail Bulgakov Faust '67 (1969) by Tommaso Landolfi Doctor Faustus (1979) by Don Nigro Temptation (1985) by Václav Havel (Translated by Marie Winn) Faustus (2004) by David Mamet Wittenberg (2008) by David Davalos Faust (2009) by Edgar Brau Faust 3 (2016) by Peter Schumann, Bread and Puppet Theater Il Dottor Faust (2018) by Menotti Lerro Selected additional novels, stories, poems, and comics The Devil and Tom Walker (1824) by Washington Irving Faust (1855) novella by Ivan Turgenev The Cobbler and the Devil (1863) by August Šenoa Fausto (1866) by Estanislao del Campo The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891) by Oscar Wilde Faust (manga) (1950) adaptation by Osamu Tezuka Faust (1980) by Robert Nye Mefisto (1986) by John Banville Faust (Avatar Press) (1987–2012) series of comic books by David Quinn & Tim Vigil Eric (1990) by Terry Pratchett Jack Faust (1997) by Michael Swanwick Waves (2009) novel by Ogan Gurel "Both Sides Now" (2013) science fiction novella adaptation by Thomas Wm. Hamilton Frau Faust (2014–Present) by Kore Yamazaki Soul Cartel (2014–2017) by Haram and Youngji Kim Teeth in the Mist (2019) by Dawn Kurtagich This Ruler (2019) novel by Mark Duff (Character: Dr. Stufa; an anagram of Faust) Faz & Mef And Some Christmas-Card Stories (2020) short story by John Thomas (Faust as a young chemistry student, out to feed the world) The Master's Apprentice (2020) by Oliver Pötzsch The Devil's Pawn (2021) by Oliver Pötzsch Cinematic adaptations Early films Faust, an obscure (now lost) 1921 American silent film directed by Frederick A. Todd[14] Faust, a 14-minute-long 1922 British silent film directed by Challis Sanderson[15] Faust, a 1922 French silent film directed by Gérard Bourgeois, regarded as the first ever 3-D film[15] Murnau's Faust F.W. Murnau, director of the classic Nosferatu, directed a silent version of Faust that premiered in 1926. Murnau's film featured special effects that were remarkable for the era.[16] In one scene, Mephisto towers over a town, dark wings spread wide, as a fog rolls in bringing the plague. In another, an extended montage sequence shows Faust, mounted behind Mephisto, riding through the heavens, and the camera view, effectively swooping through quickly changing panoramic backgrounds, courses past snowy mountains, high promontories and cliffs, and waterfalls. In the Murnau version of the tale, the aging bearded scholar and alchemist is disillusioned by the palpable failure of his supposed cure for a plague that has stricken his town. Faust renounces his many years of hard travail and studies in alchemy. In his despair, he hauls all his bound volumes by armloads onto a growing pyre, intending to burn them. However, a wind turns over a few cabalistic leaves, and one of the books' pages catches Faust's eye. Their words contain a prescription for how to invoke the dreadful dark forces. Faust heeds these recipes and begins enacting the mystic protocols: on a hill, alone, summoning Mephisto, certain forces begin to convene, and Faust in a state of growing trepidation hesitates, and begins to withdraw; he flees along a winding, twisting pathway, returning to his study chambers. At pauses along this retreat, though, he meets a reappearing figure. Each time, it doffs its hat—in a greeting, that is Mephisto, confronting him. Mephisto overcomes Faust's reluctance to sign a long binding pact with the invitation that Faust may try on these powers, just for one day, and without obligation to longer terms. Upon the end of that day, the sands of twenty-four hours having run out, after Faust's having been restored to youth and, helped by his servant Mephisto to steal a beautiful woman from her wedding feast, Faust is tempted so much that he agrees to sign a pact for eternity (which is to say when, in due course, his time runs out). Eventually Faust becomes bored with the pursuit of pleasure and returns home, where he falls in love with the beautiful and innocent Gretchen. His corruption (enabled, or embodied, through the forms of Mephisto) ultimately ruins both their lives, though there is still a chance for redemption in the end. Similarities to Goethe's Faust include the classic tale of a man who sold his soul to the Devil, the same Mephisto wagering with an angel to corrupt the soul of Faust, the plague sent by Mephisto on Faust's small town, and the familiar cliffhanger with Faust unable to find a cure for the Plague, and therefore turning to Mephisto, renouncing God, the angel, and science alike. La Beauté du diable (The Beauty of the Devil) Directed by René Clair, 1950 – A somewhat comedic adaptation with Michel Simon as Mephistopheles/Faust as old man, and Gérard Philipe as Faust transformed into a young man. Phantom of the Paradise Directed by Brian DePalma, 1974 - A vain rock impresario, who has sold his soul to the Devil in exchange for eternal youth, corrupts and destroys a brilliant but unsuccessful songwriter and a beautiful ingenue. Mephisto Directed by István Szabó, 1981 – An actor in 1930s Germany aligns himself with the Nazi party for prestige. Lekce Faust (Faust) Directed by Jan Švankmajer, 1994 – The source material of Švankmajer's film is the Faust legend; including traditional Czech puppet show versions, this film production uses a variety of cinematic formats, such as stop-motion photography animation and claymation. Faust Directed by Aleksandr Sokurov, 2011 – German-language film starring Johannes Zeiler, Anton Adasinsky, Isolda Dychauk. American Satan Directed by Ash Avildsen, 2017 – A rock and roll modern retelling of the Faust legend starring Andy Biersack as Johnny Faust.[17] The Last Faust Directed by Philipp Humm, 2019 – a contemporary feature art film directly based on Goethe's Faust, Part One and Faust, Part Two.[18] The film is the first filmed version of Faust, I and Faust, II as well as a part of Humm's Gesamtkunstwerk, an art project with over 150 different artworks such as paintings, photos, sculptures, drawings and an illustrated novella.[19][20] Television adaptations Black Clover Black Clover is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Yūki Tabata. In the series there is a character named Nacht Faust, a shadow mage and the host of four devils. Formerly a selfish delinquent, when Nacht learned of his family's history of devil magic he eagerly showed a talent for the forbidden magic. When he tried to subjugate the supreme devil Lucifugus in a ritual, his twin Morgen sacrificed himself to save his brother. Devastated that his selfish actions caused his brother's death, Nacht swore to never forgive himself until his own death and atone for the rest of his life by destroying evil before it can harm good people. Chespirito's Faust Mexican comedian Chespirito acted as Faust in a sketch adaptation of the legend. Ramon Valdez played Mephistopheles (presenting himself also as The Devil), and in this particular version, Faust sells his soul by signing a contract, after which Mephistopheles gives him an object known as the "Chirrín-Chirrión" (which resembles a horse whip) which grants him the power to make things, people or even youth or age, appear or disappear, by speaking the object's name, followed by the word "Chirrín" (for them to appear) or "Chirrión" (for them to disappear). After Faust's youth is restored, he uses his powers to try conquering the heart of his assistant Margarita (played by Florinda Meza). However, after several failed (and funny) attempts to do so, he discovers she already has a boyfriend, and realizes he sold his soul for nothing. At this point, Mephistopheles returns to take Faust's soul to hell, producing the signed contract for supporting his claim. Faust responds by using the Chirrín-Chirrión to make the contract itself disappear, which makes Mephistopheles cry. Shaman King Shaman King is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Hiroyuki Takei. In this series there is a character named Faust VIII who is the descendant of a man whose work terrified Germany. Faust VIII is a necromancer and doctor, who uses his surgical and medical knowledge to control corpses as puppets to do his bidding. Twilight Zone The 1963 Twilight Zone episode, Printer's Devil by Charles Beaumont was based on the Faust legend, with Burgess Meredith starring as the devil. Wishbone There was also a television adaptation of Goethe's Faust produced by the mid-90s PBS series Wishbone in which the titular terrier portrayed the character. Musical adaptations Feodor Chaliapin as Méphistophélès, 1915 Operatic The Faust legend has been the basis for several major operas: for a more complete list, visit Works based on Faust Mefistofele, the only completed opera by Arrigo Boito Doktor Faust, begun by Ferruccio Busoni and completed by his pupil Philipp Jarnach Faust, by Charles Gounod to a French libretto by Jules Barbier and Michel Carré from Carré's play Faust et Marguerite, in turn loosely based on Goethe's Faust, Part 1 Faust (Spohr), one of the earliest operatic adaptations of the story, with separate versions premiering in 1816 and 1852 respectively Hector Berlioz's La Damnation de Faust (1846) Alfred Schnittke's Historia von D. Johann Fausten, composed between 1983-1994, and premiered in 1995 Symphonic Faust has inspired major musical works in other forms: Faust Overture by Richard Wagner Scenes from Goethe's Faust by Robert Schumann Faust Symphony by Franz Liszt Symphony No. 8 by Gustav Mahler Histoire du soldat by Igor Stravinsky Other adaptations Faust was the title and inspiration of Phantom Regiment Drum and Bugle Corps' 2006 show Faustian Echoes by American black metal band Agalloch. "Faust Arp" by English rock band Radiohead. From the album In Rainbows. "The Small Print" by English rock band Muse. From the album Absolution. Originally titled "Action Faust", it is an interpretation of the tale from the Devil's perspective. "Bohemian Rhapsody" by English rock band Queen. From the album A Night at the Opera. "Faust" by singer songwriter Paul Williams from the original soundtrack of The Phantom of the Paradise. "Faust" by English virtual band Gorillaz. From the album G-Sides. "Absinthe with Faust" by English extreme metal band Cradle of Filth. From the album Nymphetamine. "Urfaust", "The Calling", "The Oath", "Conjuring the Cull", and "The Harrowing" by American death metal band Misery Index. The first five tracks from the album The Killing Gods. A five-song, modern interpretation of Goethe's Faust. Epica and The Black Halo by international power metal band Kamelot. A two-album interpretation of the tale. "Faust" by American metalcore band The Human Abstract. From the album Digital Veil. "Faust" by horrorcore rapper SickTanicK feat. Texas Microphone Massacre. From the album Chapter 3: Awake (The Ministry of Hate). "Faust, Midas and Myself" by American alternative rock band Switchfoot. From the album Oh! Gravity. "The Faustian Alchemist" by Finnish black metal band Belzebubs. From the album Pantheon of the Nightside Gods. Randy Newman’s Faust. A rock opera written and co-produced by Randy Newman with: Don Henley as Faust; Randy Newman as the devil; James Taylor as the Lord; Bonnie Raitt as Martha; and Linda Ronstadt as Margaret. Damn Yankees was a 1950s musical inspired by the legend. Crossroads, starring Ralph Macchio as the Daniel Webster-like savior of an elderly Blues harpist. Faust, a character from the video game franchise Guilty Gear. Bård Guldvik "Faust" Eithun, Norwegian drummer and convicted murderer known primarily for his work for black metal band Emperor. In psychotherapy Psychodynamic therapy uses the idea of a Faustian bargain to explain defence mechanisms, usually rooted in childhood, that sacrifice elements of the self in favor of some form of psychical survival. For the neurotic, abandoning one's genuine feeling self in favour of a false self more amenable to caretakers may offer a viable form of life, but at the expense of one's true emotions and affects.[21] For the psychotic, a Faustian bargain with an omnipotent self can offer the imaginary refuge of a psychic retreat at the price of living in unreality.[22] See also "Shinigami," an Edo period, rakugo work with a similar premise Jonathan Moulton, the "Yankee Faust" Robert Johnson Puella Magi Madoka Magica, an anime franchise significantly inspired by Faust. The Little Mermaid, the fairytale by Hans Christian Andersen, that has a similar plot and themes, and is often considered a child friendly retelling.